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the crops failed

  • 1 the crops failed because of drought

    raža nepadevās sausuma dēļ

    English-Latvian dictionary > the crops failed because of drought

  • 2 fail

    feil
    1. verb
    1) (to be unsuccessful (in); not to manage (to do something): They failed in their attempt; I failed my exam; I failed to post the letter.) fracasar
    2) (to break down or cease to work: The brakes failed.) fallar
    3) (to be insufficient or not enough: His courage failed (him).) fallar, faltar
    4) ((in a test, examination etc) to reject (a candidate): The examiner failed half the class.) suspender
    5) (to disappoint: They did not fail him in their support.) fallar, decepcionar
    •

    2. preposition
    (if (something) fails or is lacking: Failing his help, we shall have to try something else.) a falta de
    - without fail
    fail vb
    1. fracasar
    2. suspender
    tr[feɪl]
    1 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL suspenso
    1 (let down) fallar, decepcionar; (desert) fallar, faltar
    ■ words fail me no encuentro las palabras, me faltan palabras
    2 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL suspender
    1 (neglect) dejar de
    2 (not succeed) fracasar, no hacer algo
    3 (crops) fallar, echarse a perder
    5 (light) acabarse, irse apagando
    6 (become weak) debilitarse, fallar
    7 SMALLCOMMERCE/SMALL (become bankrupt) quebrar, fracasar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    without fail sin falta
    I fail to see... no veo..., no comprendo...
    fail ['feɪl] vi
    1) weaken: fallar, deteriorarse
    2) stop: fallar, detenerse
    his heart failed: le falló el corazón
    3) : fracasar, fallar
    her plan failed: su plan fracasó
    the crops failed: se perdió la cosecha
    4) : quebrar
    a business about to fail: una empresa a punto de quebrar
    5)
    to fail in : faltar a, no cumplir con
    to fail in one's duties: faltar a sus deberes
    fail vt
    1) flunk: reprobar (un examen)
    2) : fallar
    words fail me: las palabras me fallan, no encuentro palabras
    3) disappoint: fallar, decepcionar
    don't fail me!: ¡no me falles!
    fail n
    : fracaso m
    n.
    • falta s.f.
    • suspenso s.m.
    v.
    • abortar v.
    • estropear v.
    • fallar v.
    • fallecer v.
    • faltar v.
    • faltar a sus obligaciones v.
    • fracasar v.
    • frustrar v.
    • incumplir (Jurisprudencia) v.
    • malograr v.
    • marrar v.
    • naufragar v.
    • reprobar v.
    • suspender v.

    I
    1. feɪl
    1)
    a) ( not do)

    to fail to + INF: he failed to live up to our expectations no dio todo lo que se esperaba de él; the engine failed to start el motor no arrancó; you failed to mention the crucial point no mencionaste el punto esencial; it never fails to amaze me how many people... nunca deja de asombrarme cuánta gente...; he failed in his obligations — faltó a or no cumplió sus obligaciones

    b) ( not succeed) \<\<marriage/business\>\> fracasar; \<\<plan\>\> fallar, fracasar
    c) failed past p <businessman/writer> fracasado
    2)
    a) \<\<brakes/lights\>\> fallar
    b) \<\<crop\>\> perderse*, malograrse
    c) failing pres p
    3) ( in exam) ser* reprobado (AmL), suspender (Esp)

    2.
    vt
    1)
    a) \<\<exam\>\> no pasar, ser* reprobado en (AmL), suspender (Esp), reprobar* (Méx), perder* (Col, Ur), salir* mal en (Chi)
    b) \<\<student\>\> reprobar* or (Esp) suspender
    2) ( let down)

    his courage/memory failed him — le faltó valor/le falló la memoria

    you have failed him — le has fallado, lo has decepcionado

    in describing his genius, words fail me — me no encuentro palabras para describir su genio


    II
    1) c (in exam, test) (BrE) reprobado m or (Esp) suspenso m or (RPl) aplazo m
    2) u
    [feɪl]
    1. VI
    1) (=not succeed) [candidate in examination] suspender; [plan] fracasar, no dar resultado; [show, play] fracasar; [business] quebrar; [remedy] fallar, no surtir efecto; [hopes] frustrarse, malograrse

    to fail in one's duty — faltar a su deber, no cumplir con su obligación

    2) [light] irse, apagarse; [crops] perderse; [health, sight, voice] debilitarse; [strength] acabarse; [engine, brakes, mechanism] fallar, averiarse; [water supply] acabarse; [power supply] cortarse, fallar
    2. VT
    1) [+ exam, subject] suspender; [+ candidate] suspender (a)
    2) (=let down) [+ person] fallar (a); [memory, strength] fallar

    don't fail me! — ¡no me falles!, ¡no faltes!

    words fail me! — ¡no encuentro palabras!

    3) (=not succeed)
    4) (=omit, neglect)

    to fail to do sth — no hacer algo, dejar de hacer algo

    5) (=be unable)

    I fail to see why/what etc — no veo or alcanzo a ver por qué/qué etc

    3. N
    1)
    2) (Univ) suspenso m (in en)
    * * *

    I
    1. [feɪl]
    1)
    a) ( not do)

    to fail to + INF: he failed to live up to our expectations no dio todo lo que se esperaba de él; the engine failed to start el motor no arrancó; you failed to mention the crucial point no mencionaste el punto esencial; it never fails to amaze me how many people... nunca deja de asombrarme cuánta gente...; he failed in his obligations — faltó a or no cumplió sus obligaciones

    b) ( not succeed) \<\<marriage/business\>\> fracasar; \<\<plan\>\> fallar, fracasar
    c) failed past p <businessman/writer> fracasado
    2)
    a) \<\<brakes/lights\>\> fallar
    b) \<\<crop\>\> perderse*, malograrse
    c) failing pres p
    3) ( in exam) ser* reprobado (AmL), suspender (Esp)

    2.
    vt
    1)
    a) \<\<exam\>\> no pasar, ser* reprobado en (AmL), suspender (Esp), reprobar* (Méx), perder* (Col, Ur), salir* mal en (Chi)
    b) \<\<student\>\> reprobar* or (Esp) suspender
    2) ( let down)

    his courage/memory failed him — le faltó valor/le falló la memoria

    you have failed him — le has fallado, lo has decepcionado

    in describing his genius, words fail me — me no encuentro palabras para describir su genio


    II
    1) c (in exam, test) (BrE) reprobado m or (Esp) suspenso m or (RPl) aplazo m
    2) u

    English-spanish dictionary > fail

  • 3 fail

    1. intransitive verb
    1) (not succeed) scheitern (in mit)

    fail in one's duty — seine Pflicht versäumen

    fail as a human being/a doctor — als Mensch/Arzt versagen

    2) (miscarry, come to nothing) scheitern; fehlschlagen

    if all else fails — wenn alle Stricke od. Stränge reißen (ugs.)

    3) (become bankrupt) Bankrott machen
    4) (in examination) nicht bestehen (in Akk.)
    5) (become weaker) [Augenlicht, Gehör, Gedächtnis, Stärke:] nachlassen; [Mut:] sinken
    6) (break down, stop) [Versorgung:] zusammenbrechen; [Motor, Radio:] aussetzen; [Generator, Batterie, Pumpe:] ausfallen; [Bremse, Herz:] versagen
    7) [Ernte:] schlecht ausfallen
    2. transitive verb
    1)

    fail to do something — (not succeed in doing) etwas nicht tun [können]

    fail to achieve one's purpose/aim — seine Absicht/sein Ziel verfehlen

    2) (be unsuccessful in) nicht bestehen [Prüfung]
    3) (reject) durchfallen lassen (ugs.) [Prüfling]
    4)

    fail to do something — (not do) etwas nicht tun; (neglect to do) [es] versäumen, etwas zu tun

    I fail to see why... — ich sehe nicht ein, warum...

    5) (not suffice for) im Stich lassen
    3. noun

    without fail — auf jeden Fall; garantiert

    * * *
    [feil] 1. verb
    1) (to be unsuccessful (in); not to manage( to do something): They failed in their attempt; I failed my exam; I failed to post the letter.) versagen, versäumen
    2) (to break down or cease to work: The brakes failed.) versagen
    3) (to be insufficient or not enough: His courage failed (him).) verlassen
    4) ((in a test, examination etc) to reject (a candidate): The examiner failed half the class.) durchfallen (lassen)
    5) (to disappoint: They did not fail him in their support.) im Stich lassen
    •
    - academic.ru/26215/failing">failing
    2. preposition
    (if (something) fails or is lacking: Failing his help, we shall have to try something else.) in Ermangelung
    - failure
    - without fail
    * * *
    [feɪl]
    I. vi
    1. (not succeed) person versagen, scheitern; attempt, plan scheitern, fehlschlagen, missglücken
    I tried to persuade him to come, but I \failed ich habe versucht, ihn zum Kommen zu überreden, aber ich habe es nicht geschafft
    this method never \fails diese Methode funktioniert immer
    we \failed in our efforts to find a compromise wir haben uns vergeblich um einen Kompromiss bemüht
    he \failed to convince the jury es ist ihm nicht gelungen, die Jury zu überzeugen
    to \fail completely [or utterly] [or miserably] kläglich scheitern
    to be doomed to \fail zum Scheitern verurteilt sein
    if all else \fails zur Not, wenn alle Stricke reißen fam
    ▪ to \fail to do sth versäumen, etw zu tun
    she \failed to arrive on time sie kam nicht pünktlich
    to \fail in one's duty [to sb] seiner Pflicht [jdm gegenüber] nicht nachkommen
    to \fail to attend a meeting an einem Treffen nicht teilnehmen
    to \fail to appreciate sth etw nicht zu schätzen wissen
    3. (not be able to do) nicht umhin können geh
    you couldn't \fail to be impressed by their efficiency man war unweigerlich von ihrer Effizienz beeindruckt
    they surely can't \fail to notice that... es kann ihnen nicht entgangen sein, dass...
    this trick never \fails to amuse the children dieser Trick bringt die Kinder immer zum Lachen
    I \fail to see [or understand] what/why/how... ich verstehe nicht, was/warum/wie...
    4. SCH, UNIV durchfallen
    to \fail on a subject in einem Fach durchfallen
    to \fail dismally mit Pauken und Trompeten durchfallen fam
    5. TECH, TRANSP (stop working) brakes versagen; generator, pump ausfallen
    6. (become weaker, stop) nachlassen; health schwächer werden; heart, voice versagen
    my courage \failed der Mut verließ mich
    to be \failing fast im Sterben liegen
    7. (go bankrupt) bankrottgehen
    8. AGR harvest, yield ausfallen
    II. vt
    1. (not pass)
    to \fail a course/subject einen Kurs/ein Fach nicht bestehen
    to \fail an exam/a test bei einer Prüfung/einem Test durchfallen
    to \fail an interview bei einem Bewerbungsgespräch versagen
    to \fail one's driving test bei der Fahrprüfung durchfallen
    2. (give failing grade)
    ▪ to \fail sb candidate jdn durchfallen lassen
    ▪ to \fail sb jdn im Stich lassen [o fam hängenlassen]
    my courage \failed me mich verließ der Mut
    words \fail me mir fehlen die Worte
    III. n negative Prüfungsarbeit
    John got four \fails in his exams John ist bei seinen Prüfungen in vier Fächern durchgefallen
    is this one a pass or a \fail? hat dieser Kandidat bestanden oder ist er durchgefallen?
    ▶ without \fail auf jeden Fall, ganz sicher
    * * *
    [feɪl]
    1. vi
    1) (= be unsuccessful) keinen Erfolg haben; (in mission, life etc) versagen, scheitern; (campaign, efforts, negotiations, plan, experiment, marriage) fehlschlagen, scheitern; (undertaking, attempt) fehlschlagen, misslingen, missglücken; (applicant, application) nicht angenommen werden; (election candidate, THEAT play) durchfallen; (business) eingehen; (charm, attempts at persuasion etc) vergeblich or umsonst sein

    he failed in his attempt to take control of the company — sein Versuch, die Leitung der Firma zu übernehmen, schlug fehl or blieb erfolglos or missglückte

    to fail by 5 votes (motion) — mit 5 Stimmen Mehrheit abgelehnt werden; (person) um 5 Stimmen geschlagen werden

    2) (= not pass exam) durchfallen
    3)

    (= fall short) where he/the essay fails is in not being detailed enough — sein Fehler/der Fehler des Aufsatzes ist, dass er nicht ausführlich genug ist

    this report fails in that it comes up with no clear proposals —

    4) (= grow feeble health) sich verschlechtern; (hearing, eyesight) nachlassen; (invalid) schwächer werden
    5) (= stop working, be cut off etc generator, battery, radio, electricity, pump, engine) ausfallen; (brakes) versagen; (supply, wind) ausbleiben; (heart etc) versagen, aussetzen

    the crops failed — es gab ein Missernte; (completely) die Ernte fiel aus

    2. vt
    1) candidate durchfallen lassen; subject durchfallen in (+dat)

    to fail an exam — eine Prüfung nicht bestehen, durch eine Prüfung fallen

    2) (= let down person, memory) im Stich lassen; (= not live up to sb's expectations) enttäuschen
    3)

    I fail to see why — es ist mir völlig unklar, warum; (indignantly) ich sehe gar nicht ein, warum

    I failed to understand how/what... — ich konnte nicht verstehen, wie/was...

    3. n
    1)

    without fail — ganz bestimmt, auf jeden Fall

    2)

    (= failed candidate, exam) there were ten fails — zehn sind durchgefallen or durchgerasselt (inf)

    * * *
    fail [feıl]
    A v/i
    1. ermangeln (of, in gen):
    he fails in perseverance es fehlt oder mangelt ihm an Ausdauer
    2. nachlassen, schwinden (Kräfte etc), ausbleiben, versiegen (Quellen etc):
    our supplies failed unsere Vorräte gingen aus oder zu Ende
    3. missraten (Ernte), nicht aufgehen (Saat)
    4. abnehmen, schwächer werden:
    his eyesight failed seine Sehkraft ließ nach
    5. versagen:
    6. fehlschlagen, scheitern, misslingen, seinen Zweck verfehlen, Misserfolg haben, Schiffbruch erleiden, es nicht fertigbringen ( to do zu tun):
    he (the plan) failed er (der Plan) scheiterte;
    if everything else fails wenn alle Stricke reißen umg;
    it never fails das wirkt immer;
    he failed in all his attempts alle seine Versuche schlugen fehl;
    the prophecy failed die Prophezeiung traf nicht ein;
    I fail to see ich sehe nicht ein; I tried to do it, but I failed aber es gelang mir nicht
    7. fail to do sth es versäumen oder unterlassen, etwas zu tun:
    he failed to come er kam nicht;
    he never fails to come er kommt immer;
    don’t fail to come komme ja oder ganz bestimmt;
    he cannot fail to win er muss einfach gewinnen;
    he fails in his duty er vernachlässigt seine Pflicht
    8. fehlgehen, irren:
    fail in one’s hopes sich in seinen Hoffnungen täuschen
    9. WIRTSCH Bankrott machen oder gehen, in Konkurs geraten oder gehen
    10. SCHULE durchfallen ( in an examination in einer Prüfung)
    B v/t
    1. jemandem versagen:
    his courage failed him ihn verließ der Mut;
    words fail me mir fehlen die Worte (to inf um zu inf)
    2. a) jemanden im Stich lassen, enttäuschen
    b) jemanden verlassen (Glück):
    his luck failed him das Glück verließ ihn
    3. SCHULE
    a) jemanden durchfallen lassen (in in einer Prüfung etc)
    b) in einer Prüfung etc durchfallen:
    C s
    1. he got a fail in biology SCHULE er ist in Biologie durchgefallen
    2. without fail mit Sicherheit, ganz bestimmt
    * * *
    1. intransitive verb
    1) (not succeed) scheitern (in mit)

    fail as a human being/a doctor — als Mensch/Arzt versagen

    2) (miscarry, come to nothing) scheitern; fehlschlagen

    if all else fails — wenn alle Stricke od. Stränge reißen (ugs.)

    3) (become bankrupt) Bankrott machen
    4) (in examination) nicht bestehen (in Akk.)
    5) (become weaker) [Augenlicht, Gehör, Gedächtnis, Stärke:] nachlassen; [Mut:] sinken
    6) (break down, stop) [Versorgung:] zusammenbrechen; [Motor, Radio:] aussetzen; [Generator, Batterie, Pumpe:] ausfallen; [Bremse, Herz:] versagen
    7) [Ernte:] schlecht ausfallen
    2. transitive verb
    1)

    fail to do something — (not succeed in doing) etwas nicht tun [können]

    fail to achieve one's purpose/aim — seine Absicht/sein Ziel verfehlen

    2) (be unsuccessful in) nicht bestehen [Prüfung]
    3) (reject) durchfallen lassen (ugs.) [Prüfling]
    4)

    fail to do something — (not do) etwas nicht tun; (neglect to do) [es] versäumen, etwas zu tun

    I fail to see why... — ich sehe nicht ein, warum...

    5) (not suffice for) im Stich lassen
    3. noun

    without fail — auf jeden Fall; garantiert

    * * *
    (exam) v.
    durchfallen v. v.
    fehlschlagen v.
    misslingen v.
    scheitern v.
    versagen v.

    English-german dictionary > fail

  • 4 fail

    1. I
    1) I tried to convince him but failed я пытался убедить его, но мне это не удалось; he tried to learn to sing but failed он пытался научиться петь, но из этого ничего не вышло; the attempt failed попытка сорвалась; the crops failed because of the hot summer and so did the water-supplies из-за жаркого лета был неурожай и нарушилось водоснабжение; I failed a) я провалился (на экзамене), б) у меня ничего не вышло, я потерпел фиаско
    2) he is very old and is failing он очень стар и совсем сдает; his heart is failing у него сердце отказывает; his eyesight was beginning to fail он начал терять, зрение
    3) the wind failed ветер стих /прекратился; with his death their family line failed с его смертью их род прекратил свое существование
    2. II
    1) fail at some time the potato crop has failed this year в этом году картофель не уродился; all our plans failed last summer прошлым летом все наши планы сорвались /провалились/; he was sure that he would not fail this time он был уверен, что на этот раз он добьется своего /все получится/
    2) fail in same manner fail quickly (utterly, partially, etc.) быстро и т.д. слабеть или ухудшаться; the patient is failing rapidly больней быстро угасает; his health has failed sadly его здоровье сильно пошатнулось
    3. III
    fail smb.
    1) I will never fail you я вас никогда не подведу; his courage failed him мужество оставило /покинуло/ его; words fail me у меня нет /я не нахожу/ слов; his heart failed him а) у него упало /оборвалось/ сердце; б) у него с сердцем стало плохо; в) у него сердце перестало биться; her nerves failed her у нее сдали нервы
    2) smb.'s health (smb.'s sight, smb.'s hearing, etc.) fails smb. у кого-л. ухудшается здоровье и т.д.
    3) fail the best pupil (half the candidates, etc.) проваливать лучшего ученика и т.д. (на экзаменах)
    4. IV
    fail smb. in some manner fail smb. utterly (inadvertently, etc.) очень a т.д. подводить кого-л.
    5. XIII
    fail to do with. fail to come /to turn up/ (to keep one's word/ to keep one's promise/, to attain smth., to get the tickets, to read the book, etc.) не [суметь или забыть] прийти и т.д.; he failed to pass the examination oil не сдал/ему не удалось сдать/ экзамен; he failed to see the difference он никак не мог увидеть /понять/ разницы; she could not fail to see me она не могла меня не заметить; I fail to see your meaning я вас не понимаю; я не понимаю, что вы хотите сказать; don't fail to let me know when you return обязательно сообщите /не забудьте сообщить/ мне, когда вы вернетесь
    6. XVI
    1) fail in smth. fail in an examination (in a subject, in mathematics, in French, etc.) провалиться на экзамене и т.д.; fail in business (in an attempt, in one's efforts, etc.) потерпеть неудачу в делах и т.д.; having failed in the object of his visit не достигнув цели своего визита; fail at some time me firm (his factory, the bank, etc.) failed during tile depression эта фирма и т.д. обанкротилась во время кризиса
    2) fail in smth. he has been failing in health for the last two months в последние два месяца его здоровье пошатнулось /ухудшилось/
    3) fail in smth. he fails in truthfulness (in the respect due to elders, in diligence, etc.) ему недостает правдивости и т.д.; this novel fails in unity этому роману недостает единства
    7. XVII
    fail in ( during, while, etc.) doing smth. fail in getting a job (in attaining a goal, etc.) не суметь найти работу и т.д.; he failed in doing it он не смог этого сделать, ему это не удалось, он потерпел неудачу в этом деле
    8. XXI1
    fail smb. at some time fail smb. at the last moment подводить кого-л. в последнюю минуту

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > fail

  • 5 fail

    fail [feɪl]
    échouer à ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b) recaler ⇒ 1 (b) décevoir ⇒ 1 (c) négliger ⇒ 1 (d) échouer ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (b) être recalé ⇒ 2 (b) tomber en panne ⇒ 2 (c) baisser ⇒ 2 (d) manquer ⇒ 2 (e) échec ⇒ 3
    (a) (not succeed in) échouer à, ne pas réussir à;
    ∎ he failed his driving test il n'a pas eu son permis;
    ∎ to fail a drugs test être positif au contrôle anti-dopage;
    ∎ to fail to do sth ne pas arriver à faire qch
    (b) School & University (exam) échouer à, être recalé à; (candidate) refuser, recaler;
    ∎ he failed the exam/history il a échoué à l'examen/en histoire;
    ∎ she failed ten students elle a refusé ou recalé dix étudiants
    (c) (let down) décevoir, laisser tomber;
    ∎ I won't fail you je ne vous laisserai pas tomber, vous pouvez compter sur moi;
    ∎ his heart failed him le cœur lui a manqué;
    ∎ my memory fails me la mémoire me fait défaut, ma mémoire me trahit;
    ∎ her courage failed her le courage lui a fait défaut ou lui a manqué;
    ∎ words fail me je ne sais pas quoi dire
    ∎ to fail to do sth négliger de faire qch;
    ∎ he failed to mention he was married il a omis de signaler qu'il était marié;
    ∎ the discussions have failed to bring any progress les discussions n'ont pas réussi à produire le moindre progrès;
    ∎ they never fail to call ils ne manquent jamais d'appeler;
    ∎ he failed to keep his word il a manqué à sa parole;
    ∎ she failed to answer his letter elle n'a pas répondu à sa lettre;
    ∎ I fail to see how I can help je ne vois pas comment je peux aider;
    ∎ I fail to understand why she came je n'arrive pas à comprendre pourquoi elle est venue;
    ∎ such success never fails to arouse jealousy une telle réussite ne va jamais sans provoquer des jalousies;
    ∎ Law to fail to appear faire défaut
    (a) (not succeed → attempt, plan) échouer, ne pas réussir; (→ negotiations) échouer, ne pas aboutir; (→ play) faire fiasco; (→ person) échouer;
    ∎ he failed in his efforts to convince us il n'a pas réussi ou il n'est pas arrivé à nous convaincre;
    ∎ her attempt was bound to fail sa tentative était vouée à l'échec;
    ∎ to fail by three votes/five minutes échouer à trois voix près/cinq minutes près;
    ∎ it never fails ça ne rate jamais;
    ∎ if all else fails en désespoir de cause
    (b) School & University échouer, être recalé;
    ∎ I failed in maths j'ai été collé ou recalé en maths
    (c) (stop working) tomber en panne, céder; (brakes) lâcher; (engine) caler;
    ∎ his heart failed son cœur s'est arrêté;
    ∎ the power failed il y a eu une panne d'électricité;
    ∎ his parachute failed son parachute ne s'est pas ouvert
    (d) (grow weak → eyesight, health, memory) baisser, faiblir; (→ person, voice) s'affaiblir; (→ light, strength) baisser
    (e) (be insufficient) manquer, faire défaut;
    ∎ their crops failed because of the drought ils ont perdu les récoltes à cause de la sécheresse;
    ∎ she failed in her duty elle a manqué ou failli à son devoir
    (f) (go bankrupt) faire faillite
    3 noun
    School & University échec m;
    ∎ he only had one fail and that was in maths il n'a échoué ou été recalé qu'en maths;
    ∎ out of a class of 25, I had 23 passes and 2 fails sur une classe de 25, 23 ont été reçus et 2 ont été recalés
    (for certain) sans faute, à coup sûr; (always) inévitablement, immanquablement

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > fail

  • 6 fail

    fail [feɪl]
       a. ( = be unsuccessful) échouer ; [business] faire faillite
    • to fail in an exam/in Latin échouer à un examen/en latin
       b. ( = grow weak) [hearing, health] décliner ; [eyesight] baisser ; [invalid, voice] s'affaiblir
       c. ( = run short) manquer
       d. ( = break down) [engine] tomber en panne ; [brakes] lâcher
       a. [+ examination] échouer à
       b. [+ candidate] recaler (inf)
       c. ( = let down) [+ business partner] manquer à ses engagements envers ; [+ friend] décevoir
    • words fail me! les mots me manquent !
       d. ( = omit) to fail to do manquer de faire
    3. noun
    • without fail [happen] immanquablement ; [come, do] chaque fois
    • every morning without fail, she takes the dog for a walk chaque matin sans exception, elle sort son chien
    * * *
    [feɪl] 1.
    noun School, University échec m
    2.
    without fail adverbial phrase [arrive, do] sans faute; [happen] à coup sûr
    3.
    1) School, University échouer à [exam, driving test]; échouer en or être collé (colloq) en [subject]; coller (colloq) [candidate, pupil]
    2) ( omit)

    to fail to mention that... — omettre de signaler que...

    3) ( be unable)

    one could hardly fail to notice that... — il était évident que...

    4) ( let down) laisser tomber [friend]; manquer à ses engagements envers [dependant, supporter]; [courage] manquer à [person]; [memory] faire défaut à [person]
    4.
    1) ( be unsuccessful) [exam candidate] échouer, être collé (colloq); [attempt, plan] échouer

    to fail in one's duty — manquer or faillir à son devoir

    2) ( weaken) [eyesight, hearing, light] baisser; [health, person] décliner
    3) ( not function) [brakes] lâcher; [engine] tomber en panne; [power, water supply] être coupé
    4) Agriculture [crop] être mauvais
    5) ( go bankrupt) faire faillite
    6) Medicine [heart] lâcher
    5.
    failed past participle adjective [actor, writer] raté (colloq)

    English-French dictionary > fail

  • 7 crop

    1 მოსავალი
    2 სიმრავლე
    the President's statement produced a crop of questions პრეზიდენტის განცხადებამ უამრავი შეკითხვა გამოიწვია
    a prison crop საციხოდ გადაპარსული / გადახოტრილითმა
    3 კორტნა (კორტნის)
    4 ძოვა (ძოვს)
    5 თმის მოკლედ შეჭრა
    6 დათესვა, დარგვა
    7 მოსვლა (მოსავლისა)
    a generous crop დიდი / უხვი მოსავალი

    English-Georgian dictionary > crop

  • 8 fail *****

    [feɪl]
    1. vi
    1) (gen) fallire, (in exam: candidate) essere respinto (-a) or bocciato (-a), (show, play) essere un fiasco
    2) (power, light, supplies) mancare, (crops) andare perduto (-a), (sight), (light) indebolirsi, (strength, health) venire a mancare, (plan) fallire, (engine) fermarsi, (brakes) non funzionare
    2. vt
    1) (exam, subject) non superare, essere bocciato (-a) in, (candidate) respingere, bocciare, rimandare
    2) (subj: person, memory, nerve) abbandonare, mancare a
    3)

    to fail to do sth — (neglect) non fare qc, mancare di fare qc, (be unable) non riuscire a fare qc

    I fail to see why/what etc — non vedo perché/che cosa ecc

    3. n

    without fail — senza fallo, senz'altro

    D is a pass, E is a fail — con D si passa, con E si viene bocciati

    English-Italian dictionary > fail *****

  • 9 fail

    n. onvoldoende (schoolexamen), falen
    --------
    v. mislukken, (laten) zakken; nalaten; in de steek laten; opraken
    fail1
    ♦voorbeelden:
    without fail • zonder mankeren/falen, stellig
    ————————
    fail2
    1  tekortschieten ⇒ ontbreken, het begeven
    2  afnemen ⇒ op raken, verzwakken
    4  mislukken ⇒ het niet halen, het laten afweten
    ♦voorbeelden:
    1   his courage failed him • het ontbrak hem aan moed
         words failed me • ik kon geen woorden vinden
         the crops will fail this year • de oogst zal dit jaar mislukken
         he failed in his duty • hij deed zijn plicht niet
    2   her health is failing rapidly • haar gezondheid gaat snel achteruit
    1  nalaten ⇒ niet in staat zijn/er niet in slagen
    3  zakken voor ⇒ niet halen 〈 examen〉
    ♦voorbeelden:
    1   I fail to see your point • ik begrijp niet wat u bedoelt

    English-Dutch dictionary > fail

  • 10 lay

    1. II
    lay in some manner lay well (again, etc.) хорошо и т. д. нестись
    2. III
    lay smth.
    1) lay a submarine cable (gas pipes, rails, etc.) прокладывать подводный кабель и т. д.; lay a floor настилать пол; lay a pavement мостить дорогу; lay linoleum (a carpet, a rug, etc.) класть линолеум и т. д., покрывать линолеумом и т. д.; lay asphalt покрывать асфальтом, асфальтировать; lay bricks класть./укладывать/ кирпичи; lay a bridge наводить мост; lay the table накрывать на стол; lay the cloth а) стелить скатерть; б) накрывать на стол; lay the plates (the spoons, the knives, etc.) сервировать стол (расставлять тарелки, раскладывать ложки и т. п.); lay the fire приготовить дрова, растопку и т. п., чтобы развести огонь (в калыме, печке)
    2) lay a snare (a trap, a net, etc.) ставить /расставлять/ силки и т. д.; lay an ambush устроить засаду; lay plans составить /разработать/ план
    3) lay eggs нестись, класть /откладывать/ яйца
    4) || lay a wager /а bet/ держать пари, биться об заклад
    5) lay the crops прибивать посевы;lay the rainstorm laid the oats ливень прибил /примял/ овес; sprinkle water to lay the dust побрызгай водой, чтобы прибить пыль /чтобы не поднять пыли/
    6) lay apprehensions (smb.'s foreboding. smb.'s fears, etc.) рассеивать чьи-л. опасения и т. д., успокаивать кого-л. и т. д.; what can we do to lay his doubts? как нам рассеять его сомнения?; lay a ghost /а spirit, a bogey/ изгонять духов
    3. IV
    1) lay smth. somewhere don't lay the book there не клади там книгу; he laid the scene of his last play abroad действие его последней пьесы происходит за границей
    2) lay smth. in some manner lay bricks quickly (the table artistically, etc.) быстро класть кирпича и т. д.
    3) lay smth. in some manner they laid their plans carefully, but failed all the same они тщательно разработали /продумали/ план, но тем не менее у них ничего не вышло
    4. VI
    1) lay smb., smth. in some state lay smb., smth. low flat/ повалить /свалять, опрокинуть/ кого-л., что-л.; he laid the tree low он повалил дерево; the blow laid him low удар свалил его /сбил его с ног/
    2) lay smth. in some state lay a region (a place, a country, a land, a district, etc.) waste опустошать район и т.д., lay land (a field) fallow оставлять землю (поле) под паром; lay a tract of land dry осушать участок земли
    3) lay smth., smb. in some state lay a way (an underground passage, etc.) open открывать путь и т. д.; оставлять путь и т. д. незащищенным; lay one's cheek (one's head, etc.) open рассечь щеку и т. д.; lay a plot open раскрыть заговор; lay one's heart (one's chest, one's secret, one's secret feelings, etc.) bare раскрывать /открывать/ [свою] душу и т. д.; lay one's plans bare раскрывать свои планы; lay oneself open to suspicion (to accusations, to criticism, to calumny, etc.) навлекать на себя подозрение и т. д., lay oneself open to attack подставлять себя под удар
    5. VII
    lay smb. to do smth. lay smb. to sleep /to rest/ a) уложить кого-л. спать; б) похоронить кого-л.
    6. XI
    1) be laid in some manner they are laid end to end их укладывают /кладут/ концами /конец к концу/
    2) be laid in some place a fire was laid in the grate дрова были положены в камин; the scene [of the story (of a play, of a tale, etc.)] is laid in London (in a small town in Germany, etc.) действие [в рассказе и т. д.] происходит /события [ рассказа и т. д.] разворачиваются/ в Лондоне и т. д. || be laid at smb.'s door свалить вину на кого-л.; the failure will be laid at your door ты окажешься виноватым в провале, вину за провал свалят /возложат/ на тебя /припишут тебе/
    3) be laid by smth. the oats were laid by the rainstorm (by the wind. etc.) овес побило ливнем и т. д., овес полег после ливня и т. д., be laid low by sickness coll. заболеть и быть вынужденным лежать (в постели), свалиться (от болезни), I've been laid low by influenza coll. грипп свалил меня; when he was laid low by typhoid fever... coll. когда он лежал в тифе...
    4) be laid before smb.'s smth. all facts were laid before the committee комиссии были представлены все факты
    5) be laid in some state the city was laid flat (in ruins) город был полностью разрушен (лежал в руинах); the country was laid waste страна была разорена
    7. XVI
    1) lay at some time lay in summer (in the morning, etc.) нестись /класть яйца/ летом и т. д.
    2) lay into smb. coll. he laid into us он набросился на нас (с кулаками), он начал дубасить /колотить/ нас
    3) || lay to one's oars налечь на весла
    8. XXI1
    1) lay smth. (up)on smth. lay smth. on a shelf (on the table, up(on) the bench, on the ground, etc.) класть /ставить/ что-л. на полку и т. д., lay one's hand on smb.'s shoulder (one's head on a pillow, etc.) класть /опускать/ руку на чье л. плечо и т. д.: no sooner did she lay her head on the pillow... не успела ее голова коснуться подушки...; lay colours on canvas накладывать /наносить/ краски на холст; lay one's cards on the table выложить карты на стол, говорить начистоту; lay smth. on smth.! smb. lay one's hopes on smth., smb. возлагать надежды на что-л., кого-л.; lay eyes on smth., smb. увидеть что-л., кого-л.; lay smb. on smth. lay smb. on his bed (the man on the ground, the poor girl on the bench, the wounded man on a stretcher, etc.) положить кого-л. на кровать и т. д., I laid myself upon the bed я улегся на кровать /разлегся на кровати/; lay smth. in smth. lay the body in the grave (the box in the hole, etc.) опустить тело в могилу и т.д., lay smth. along smth. she laid the flowerpots along the verandas (h) он it расставила горшки с цветами вдоль веранды; lay smth. at smth. lay the loot at her feet сложить добычу к ее ногам || lay [one's] hands on smth. coll. a) завладевать чем-л., присваивать что-л.; he will keep everything he can lay [his] hands on он не выпустит (из своих рук) то, что захватил; he is ready to lay hands on anything he sees он готов заграбастать все, что ни видит; б) найти; I can't lay my hands on it just now в данный момент я не могу этого найти; lay one's finger on smth. точно определить что-л. /указать на что-л./; lay попасть в точку; you always manage to lay your finger on the weak spot in my logic вам всегда удается обнаружить /раскрыть/ слабые стороны в моей аргументации / в моей логике/; lay hold on /of/ smth. захватить что-л., завладеть чем-л.; lay hold on /of/ the treasure (of the island, of their castle, etc.) захватить сокровище и т.д., завладеть сокровищем и т. д.; he laid hold of this idea он ухватился за эту мысль
    2) lay smth. on smb. lay blows (a stick, a whip, etc.) on smb. избивать кого-л., наносить удары кому-л.; lay one on smb. coll. дать кому-л. тумака /раза/; lay it on smb. coll. задать кому л. трепку, избить кого-л.; lay hands on smb. поднять руку на кого-л.; if you dare to lay a finger on her если ты только посмеешь пальцем ее тронуть /дотронуться до нее/; lay [violent] hands on oneself наложить на себя руки, покончить с собой
    3) lay smth. across smth. lay a plank across the ditch перекидывать доску через канаву; they decided to lay a bridge across this river они решили навести мост через эту реку; lay smth. with smth. lay a floor with a carpet застилать / покрывать/ пол ковром; lay the table for smth., smb. lay the table for breakfast (for dinner, for guests, for three, etc.) накрывать стол к завтраку и т. д.; lay smth. for /of/ smth. lay the foundation for /of/ smth. a) закладывать фундамент / основы/ чего-л.; this laid the foundation for his future success это положило начало его будущему успеху /послужило началом его будущего успеха/; б) приступать к чему-л.
    4) lay smth. before smth., smb. lay the information before the board (the facts before a committee, one's arguments before the lawyer, the plan before one's officer, one's ideas before one's friends, the scheme before them, etc.) представлять сведения комиссии и т.д.; lay the matter squarely before smb. честно /прямо/ изложить кому-л. дело /существо дела/; the lawyer laid his case before the court адвокат представил /изложил/ дело суду || lay [an] information against smb. доносить на кого-л.; he laid an information against them with the police он донес на них полиции
    5) lay smth. on smth. lay a tax (a duty) on wine (on cigarettes, on imported goods, etc.) облагать вино и т. д. налогом /пошлиной/; lay heavy taxes on tea and coffee обложить чай и кофе большим /высоким/ налогом; lay duty on tobacco обложить табак пошлиной; lay smth. on smb. lay this burden on him (an obligation on us all, a penalty on the man, etc.) накладывать это бремя на него и т. д.; lay a punishment on smb. наказать кого-л., наложить на кого-л. взыскание; lay smth., smb. under (on) smth. lay a conquered country (a town, the people, etc.) under contribution наложить контрибуцию на покоренную страну и т.д., lay smb. under [an] obligation наложить на кого-л. определенные обязательства; I laid myself under obligation to him я ему обязан, я у него в долгу; your conduct lays me under the necessity of punishing you твое поведение вынуждает меня прибегнуть к наказанию, ты плохо себя ведешь, и я вынужден наказать тебя; lay strict injunctions on smb. отдать кому-л. строгий приказ
    6) lay smth. against smb. lay a charge /an accusation/ against smb. выдвигать обвинение против кого-л.; lay an action against smb. предъявлять иск кому-л., возбуждать судебное дело против кого-л.; lay smth. on smb. lay the blame [for smth.] on smb. винить кого-л. [в чем-л.lay; they tried to lay the blame on me они пытались свалить вину на меня; lay smth. to smth. lay one's failure to smb.'s charge (one's misfortunes to smb.'s charge, the crime to smb.'s account, the blame to the account of smb., etc.) обвинять /винить/ кого-л. в своем провале и т. д. || lay the fault at smb.'s door обвинять кого-л., приписывать вину кому-л.; lay the blame at the right door обвинять того, кого следует, справедливо обвинять кого-л.
    7) lay smth. on smth. lay stress on this definition (stress on the event, weight on a word, emphasis on it, etc.) подчеркивать это определение и m. д.; he lays special emphasis on this fact он придает этому факту особое значение; he laid stress on the necessity for /of/ immediate action он подчеркнул необходимость действовать немедленно
    8) lay smth. on smb. lay bets on the runners делать ставки на бегунов; lay money on a horse ставить [деньги] на лошадь
    9) lay smth. in smth. lay a building in ashes сжигать здание до тла; lay a town in ruin (s) разрушать город до основания
    9. XXVI
    lay a bet that... I lay 10s. to one that he will not come ставлю десять шиллингов против одного, что он не придет; I am ready to lay a bet that you never saw a quicker horse (that they will win, that they will come, etc.) готов держать пари, что вы никогда не видели белее резвой лошади и т. д., I'll lay you a bet [that] he will never overtake us держу пари /давайте поспорим, готов биться об заклад/, что он ни за что не обгонит нас

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > lay

  • 11 look

    look [lʊk]
    coup d'œil ⇒ 1 (a) regard ⇒ 1 (c) air ⇒ 1 (d) mode ⇒ 1 (e) regarder ⇒ 2 (a), 3 (a) chercher ⇒ 3 (b) écouter ⇒ 3 (c) avoir l'air ⇒ 3 (d) chercher à ⇒ 3 (f) beauté ⇒ 4
    1 noun
    (a) (gen) coup m d'œil;
    ∎ to have or to take a look (at sth) jeter un coup d'œil (sur ou à qch), regarder (qch);
    ∎ familiar let's have a look (show me) fais voir;
    ∎ would you like a look through my binoculars? voulez-vous regarder avec mes jumelles?;
    ∎ one look at him is enough to know he's a crook on voit au premier coup d'œil que c'est un escroc;
    ∎ it's worth a quick look ça vaut le coup d'œil;
    ∎ we need to take a long hard look at our image abroad il est temps que nous examinions de près notre image de marque à l'étranger;
    ∎ did you get a good look at him? vous l'avez vu clairement?;
    ∎ did the mechanic have a proper look at the car? est-ce que le mécanicien a bien regardé la voiture?;
    ∎ and now a look ahead to next week's programmes et maintenant, un aperçu des programmes de la semaine prochaine;
    ∎ do you mind if I take a look around? ça vous gêne si je jette un coup d'œil?;
    ∎ we'll just have a quick look round the garden nous allons jeter un coup d'œil dans le jardin;
    ∎ we had a look round the town nous avons fait un tour dans la ville;
    ∎ I took a quick look through the drawers j'ai jeté un rapide coup d'œil dans les tiroirs
    ∎ to have a look for sth chercher qch;
    ∎ have you had a good look for it? est-ce que tu as bien cherché?;
    ∎ have another look cherche encore
    (c) (glance) regard m;
    ∎ a suspicious/nasty/angry look un regard soupçonneux/mauvais/méchant;
    ∎ she gave me a dirty look elle m'a jeté un regard mauvais;
    ∎ you should have seen the looks we got from passers-by! si tu avais vu la façon dont les passants nous regardaient!;
    ∎ we were getting some very odd looks on nous regardait d'un drôle d'air;
    ∎ he didn't say anything, but if looks could kill! il n'a pas dit un mot, mais il y a des regards qui tuent!
    (d) (appearance, air) air m;
    ∎ he had a strange look in his eyes (expression) il avait un drôle de regard;
    ∎ the old house has a neglected look la vieille maison a l'air négligé;
    ∎ she has the look of a troublemaker elle a une tête à faire des histoires;
    ∎ she has the look of someone who's going places elle a l'air de quelqu'un qui réussira dans la vie;
    ∎ by the look or looks of her, I'd say she failed the exam à la voir ou rien qu'en la voyant, je dirais qu'elle a raté son examen;
    ∎ it has the look of a successful marriage cela a l'air d'un mariage heureux;
    ∎ there's trouble brewing by the look of it or things on dirait que quelque chose se trame;
    ∎ I quite like the look of the next candidate j'aime assez le profil du prochain candidat;
    ∎ I don't like the look of it ça ne me dit rien de bon ou rien qui vaille;
    ∎ I didn't like the look of her at all son allure ne m'a pas du tout plu;
    ∎ I don't like the look of the weather le temps a l'air inquiétant
    (e) (fashion) mode f, look m;
    ∎ the sporty/punk look le look sportif/punk
    ∎ look who's coming! regarde qui arrive!;
    ∎ look who's talking! tu peux parler, toi!;
    ∎ look what you've done/where you're going! regarde un peu ce que tu as fait/où tu vas!
    ∎ to look one's last on sth jeter un dernier regard à qch;
    ∎ to look sb up and down regarder qn de haut en bas, toiser qn du regard;
    ∎ to look sb (full or straight) in the face regarder qn (bien) en face ou dans les yeux;
    ∎ I can never look her in the face again je ne pourrai plus jamais la regarder en face
    (a) (gen) regarder;
    ∎ look, there's Brian! regarde, voilà Brian!;
    ∎ what's happening outside? let me look qu'est-ce qui se passe dehors? laissez-moi voir;
    ∎ have you cut yourself? let me look tu t'es coupé? montre-moi ou laisse-moi voir;
    ∎ go on, nobody's looking vas-y, personne ne regarde;
    ∎ they crept up on me while I wasn't looking ils se sont approchés de moi pendant que j'avais le dos tourné;
    ∎ I'm just looking (in shop) je regarde;
    ∎ look and see if there's anyone there regarde voir s'il y a quelqu'un;
    ∎ if you look very carefully you can see a tiny crack in it si tu regardes bien, tu verras une toute petite fissure;
    ∎ look this way regardez par ici;
    ∎ to look into sb's eyes regarder qn dans les yeux;
    ∎ she looked along the row/down the list elle a parcouru la rangée/la liste du regard;
    ∎ he was looking out of the window/over the wall/up the chimney il regardait par la fenêtre/par-dessus le mur/dans la cheminée;
    ∎ to look on the bright side voir les choses du bon côté;
    ∎ to look over sb's shoulder regarder par-dessus l'épaule de qn; figurative surveiller ce que fait qn;
    ∎ to look the other way détourner les yeux; figurative fermer les yeux;
    ∎ proverb look before you leap = il faut réfléchir deux fois avant d'agir
    (b) (search) chercher;
    ∎ you can't have looked hard enough tu n'as pas dû beaucoup chercher
    (c) (in imperative → listen, pay attention) écouter;
    ∎ look, I can't pay you back just yet écoute, je ne peux pas te rembourser tout de suite;
    ∎ now look, Paul, I've had enough of this! bon écoute, Paul, ça suffit maintenant!;
    ∎ look here! dites donc!
    (d) (seem, appear) avoir l'air;
    ∎ to look old avoir l'air ou faire vieux;
    ∎ to look ill avoir l'air malade, avoir mauvaise mine;
    ∎ to look well (person) avoir bonne mine;
    ∎ that looks delicious! ça a l'air délicieux!;
    ∎ you look or are looking better today tu as l'air (d'aller) mieux aujourd'hui;
    ∎ how do I look? comment tu me trouves?;
    ∎ you look absolutely stunning in that dress tu es vraiment ravissante dans cette robe;
    ∎ it makes him look ten years older/younger ça le vieillit/rajeunit de dix ans;
    ∎ he's 70, but he doesn't look it il a 70 ans mais il n'en a pas l'air ou mais il ne les fait pas;
    ∎ I can't hang the picture there, it just doesn't look right je ne peux pas mettre le tableau là, ça ne va pas;
    ∎ it looks all right to me moi, je trouve ça bien;
    ∎ how does the situation look to you? que pensez-vous de la situation?;
    ∎ that's not how it looks to the man in the street ce n'est pas comme ça que l'homme de la rue voit les choses;
    ∎ things will look very different when you leave school les choses te sembleront très différentes quand tu quitteras l'école;
    ∎ it'll look bad if I don't contribute ça fera mauvaise impression si je ne contribue pas;
    ∎ things are looking black for the economy les perspectives économiques sont assez sombres;
    ∎ the crops look promising la récolte s'annonce bien;
    ∎ she's not as stupid as she looks elle est moins bête qu'elle n'en a l'air;
    ∎ I must have looked a fool j'ai dû passer pour un imbécile;
    ∎ to make sb look a fool or an idiot tourner qn en ridicule;
    ∎ he makes the rest of the cast look very ordinary à côté de lui, les autres acteurs ont l'air vraiment quelconques;
    ∎ to look like sb/sth (resemble) ressembler à qn/qch;
    ∎ she looks like her mother elle ressemble à sa mère;
    ∎ what does she look like? (describe her) comment est-elle?; (she looks a mess) non mais, à quoi elle ressemble!;
    ∎ it looks like an oil refinery ça ressemble à une raffinerie de pétrole, on dirait une raffinerie de pétrole;
    ∎ I don't know what it is, but it looks like blood je ne sais pas ce que c'est, mais on dirait ou ça ressemble à du sang;
    ∎ it looks like rain on dirait qu'il va pleuvoir;
    ∎ it looks (to me) like he was lying j'ai l'impression qu'il mentait;
    ∎ is this our room? - it looks like it c'est notre chambre? - ça m'en a tout l'air;
    ∎ the meeting looked like going on all day la réunion avait l'air d'être partie pour durer toute la journée;
    ∎ you look as if you've seen a ghost on dirait que tu as vu un revenant;
    ∎ it looks as if Natalie's going to resign Natalie a l'air de vouloir démissionner;
    ∎ it looks as if he didn't want to go il semble qu'il ne veuille pas y aller;
    ∎ it doesn't look as if they're coming on dirait qu'ils ne vont pas venir;
    ∎ you're looking good tu as l'air en forme;
    ∎ he looks good in jeans les jeans lui vont bien;
    ∎ that hat looks very good on you ce chapeau te va très bien;
    ∎ it'll look good on your CV ça fera bien sur ton curriculum ou CV;
    ∎ things are looking pretty good here les choses ont l'air de se présenter plutôt bien ici
    (e) (face → house, window)
    ∎ to look (out) onto a park donner sur un parc;
    ∎ to look north/west être exposé au nord/à l'ouest
    ∎ to be looking to do sth chercher à faire qch;
    ∎ she'll be looking to improve on her previous best time elle cherchera à améliorer son meilleur temps;
    ∎ we're looking to expand our export business nous cherchons à développer nos exportations;
    ∎ I'm not looking to cause any trouble je ne veux pas causer de problèmes
    ∎ (beauty) she's got everything - looks, intelligence, youth... elle a tout pour elle, elle est belle, intelligente, jeune...;
    ∎ he's kept his looks il est resté beau;
    ∎ looks don't matter l'apparence ne compte pas;
    ∎ she's got her mother's looks elle a la beauté de sa mère;
    ∎ he's lost his looks il n'est plus aussi beau qu'avant
    (a) (take care of) s'occuper de;
    ∎ my mother's looking after the kids/the cat this weekend ma mère va s'occuper des enfants/du chat ce week-end;
    ∎ she has a sick mother to look after elle a une mère malade à charge;
    ∎ you should look after your clothes more carefully tu devrais prendre plus grand soin de tes vêtements;
    ∎ he helps me to look after the garden il m'aide à m'occuper du jardin;
    ∎ figurative look after yourself! fais bien attention à toi!;
    ∎ you're well looked after on s'occupe bien de vous;
    ∎ the car has been well looked after la voiture est bien entretenue;
    ∎ don't worry, he can look after himself ne t'inquiète pas, il est capable de se débrouiller tout seul
    (b) (be responsible for) s'occuper de;
    ∎ they look after our interests in Europe ils s'occupent de nos affaires en Europe
    (c) (watch over) surveiller;
    ∎ can you look after my bag for a couple of minutes? tu peux surveiller mon sac deux minutes?
    regarder vers l'avenir;
    ∎ looking ahead three or four years dans trois ou quatre ans;
    ∎ let's look ahead to the next century/to next month's meeting pensons au siècle prochain/à la réunion du mois prochain
    (a) (gen) regarder;
    ∎ she looked at herself in the mirror elle se regarda dans la glace;
    ∎ they looked at each other ils ont échangé un regard;
    ∎ oh dear, look at the time! oh là là, regardez l'heure!;
    ∎ just look at you! (you look awful) mais regarde-toi donc!;
    ∎ it's not much to look at ça ne paie pas de mine;
    ∎ she's not much to look at ce n'est pas une beauté;
    ∎ he's not much to look at il n'est pas très beau;
    ∎ you wouldn't think, to look at him, that he's a multi-millionaire à le voir on ne croirait pas avoir affaire à un multi-millionnaire;
    ∎ I haven't looked at another woman in the last forty years en quarante ans, je n'ai pas regardé une autre femme;
    ∎ just look at the mess we're in! regarde les ennuis qu'on a!
    (b) (consider) considérer;
    ∎ look at the problem from my point of view considérez le problème de mon point de vue;
    ∎ that's not the way I look at it ce n'est pas comme ça que je vois les choses;
    ∎ they won't even look at the idea ils refusent même de prendre cette idée en considération;
    ∎ if you don't have money, he won't even look at you si vous n'avez pas d'argent, il ne vous regardera même pas;
    ∎ familiar my brother can't even look at an egg mon frère ne supporte pas ou déteste les œufs
    (c) (check) vérifier, regarder;
    ∎ could you look at the tyres? pouvez-vous regarder les pneus?;
    ∎ to have one's teeth looked at se faire examiner les dents;
    ∎ familiar you need your head looking at! ça va pas, la tête?
    détourner les yeux
    (a) (in space) regarder derrière soi;
    ∎ she walked away without looking back elle est partie sans se retourner
    (b) (in time) regarder en arrière;
    ∎ there's no point in looking back ça ne sert à rien de regarder en arrière;
    ∎ the author looks back on the war years l'auteur revient sur les années de guerre;
    ∎ it seems funny now we look back on it ça semble drôle quand on y pense aujourd'hui;
    ∎ we can look back on some happy times nous avons connu de bons moments;
    ∎ figurative after she got her first job she never looked back à partir du moment où elle a trouvé son premier emploi, tout lui a réussi
    regarder en bas; (in embarrassment) baisser les yeux;
    ∎ we looked down on or at the valley nous regardions la vallée en dessous
    (despise) mépriser
    (a) (seek) chercher;
    ∎ go and look for him allez le chercher;
    ∎ she's still looking for a job elle est toujours à la recherche d'un emploi;
    ∎ are you looking for a fight? tu cherches la bagarre?
    (b) (expect) attendre;
    ∎ it's not the result we were looking for ce n'est pas le résultat que nous attendions
    (to the future) regarder vers l'avenir
    attendre avec impatience;
    ∎ we're looking forward to the end of term nous attendons la fin du trimestre avec impatience;
    ∎ I'm looking forward to the weekend vivement le week-end!;
    ∎ to look forward to doing sth être impatient de faire qch;
    ∎ I'm looking forward to seeing her again (eager) il me tarde de la revoir; (polite formula) je serai heureux de la revoir;
    ∎ I look forward to meeting you je serai heureux de faire votre connaissance;
    ∎ see you on Saturday - right, I'll look forward to it à samedi alors - oui, c'est entendu;
    ∎ I'm not exactly looking forward to going je n'ai pas vraiment envie d'y aller;
    ∎ they had been looking forward to this moment for months cela faisait des mois qu'ils attendaient cet instant;
    ∎ I look forward to hearing from you soon (in letter) dans l'attente de votre réponse;
    ∎ I'm not looking forward to the operation la perspective de cette opération ne m'enchante guère
    (a) (inside) regarder à l'intérieur
    (b) (pay a visit) passer;
    ∎ to look in on sb rendre visite à ou passer voir qn;
    ∎ I'll look in again tomorrow je repasserai demain;
    ∎ he looked in at the pub on the way home il s'est arrêté au pub en rentrant chez lui
    (c) (watch TV) regarder la télévision
    examiner, étudier;
    ∎ it's a problem that needs looking into c'est un problème qu'il faut examiner ou sur lequel il faut se pencher
    ➲ look on
    considérer;
    ∎ I look on him as my brother je le considère comme mon frère;
    ∎ to look on sb/sth with favour/disfavour voir qn/qch d'un œil favorable/défavorable
    regarder;
    ∎ the passers-by just looked on les passants se sont contentés de regarder
    ∎ British I'll look that book out for you je te chercherai ce livre;
    ∎ have you looked out those photos to give me? est-ce que tu as trouvé les photos que tu devais me donner?
    (a) (person) regarder dehors
    (b) (room, window)
    ∎ the bedroom looks out on or over the garden la chambre donne sur le jardin
    (c) (be careful) faire attention;
    ∎ look out, it's hot! attention, c'est chaud!;
    ∎ you'll be in trouble if you don't look out tu vas t'attirer des ennuis si tu ne fais pas attention
    American (take care of) prendre soin de
    ∎ I'll look out for you at the station je te guetterai à la gare;
    ∎ look out for the sign to Dover guettez le panneau pour Douvres;
    ∎ she's always looking out for bargains elle est toujours à la recherche ou à l'affût d'une bonne affaire;
    ∎ you have to look out for snakes il faut faire attention ou se méfier, il y a des serpents
    ∎ to look out for oneself penser à soi;
    ∎ you've got to look out for number one! chacun pour soi!
    (glance over) jeter un coup d'œil sur; (examine) examiner, étudier
    (museum, cathedral, factory) visiter; (shop, room) jeter un coup d'œil dans
    (a) (look at surroundings) regarder (autour de soi);
    ∎ I'd rather look round on my own than take the guided tour je préférerais faire le tour moi-même plutôt que de suivre la visite guidée;
    ∎ I looked round for an exit j'ai cherché une sortie
    (b) (look back) regarder derrière soi, se retourner
    (a) (window, screen) regarder à travers
    (b) (book, report) jeter un coup d'œil sur ou à, regarder
    ∎ he looked straight through me il m'a regardé comme si je n'étais pas là
    (a) (turn to) se tourner vers;
    ∎ it's best to look to an expert il est préférable de consulter un expert ou de demander l'avis d'un expert;
    ∎ don't look to her for help ne compte pas sur elle pour t'aider;
    ∎ they are looking to us to find a solution to this problem ils comptent sur nous pour trouver une solution à ce problème
    (b) formal (attend to) veiller à;
    ∎ he should look to his reputation il devrait veiller à sa réputation;
    ∎ look to it that discipline is properly maintained veillez à ce que la discipline soit bien maintenue
    ➲ look up
    (a) (in reference work, directory etc) chercher;
    ∎ look the word up in the dictionary cherche le mot dans le dictionnaire
    (b) (visit) passer voir, rendre visite à;
    ∎ look us up when you're in New York passe nous voir quand tu seras à New York
    (a) (raise one's eyes) lever les yeux
    (b) (improve) s'améliorer;
    ∎ things are looking up for the economy les perspectives économiques semblent meilleures
    considérer
    respecter, avoir du respect pour
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'Don't look now' Du Maurier, Roeg 'Ne vous retournez pas'
    ✾ Play ✾ Film 'Look back in Anger' Osborne, Richardson 'La Paix du dimanche' (pièce), 'Les Corps sauvages' (film)
    ⓘ Here's looking at you kid Ce sont les mots que prononce Rick Blaine, le personnage incarné par Humphrey Bogart dans le film Casablanca (1942), lorsqu'il dit adieu à la femme qu'il aime, jouée par Ingrid Bergman. Aujourd'hui on utilise souvent cette phrase en référence au film lorsque l'on porte un toast à quelqu'un.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > look

  • 12 crop

    [krɔp]
    n
    урожай, посевы, хлеба́ на корню

    The crop failed this year. — В этом году плохой урожай

    - heavy crop of apples
    - crops are late in coming through

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > crop

  • 13 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 14 Whitney, Eli

    [br]
    b. 8 December 1765 Westborough, Massachusetts, USA
    d. 8 January 1825 New Haven, Connecticut, USA
    [br]
    American inventor of the cotton gin and manufacturer of firearms.
    [br]
    The son of a prosperous farmer, Eli Whitney as a teenager showed more interest in mechanics than school work. At the age of 15 he began an enterprise business manufacturing nails in his father's workshop, even having to hire help to fulfil his orders. He later determined to acquire a university education and, his father having declined to provide funds, he taught at local schools to obtain the means to attend Leicester Academy, Massachusetts, in preparation for his entry to Yale in 1789. He graduated in 1792 and then decided to study law. He accepted a position in Georgia as a tutor that would have given him time for study; this post did not materialize, but on his journey south he met General Nathanael Greene's widow and the manager of her plantations, Phineas Miller (1764–1803). A feature of agriculture in the southern states was that the land was unsuitable for long-staple cotton but could yield large crops of green-seed cotton. Green-seed cotton was difficult to separate from its seed, and when Whitney learned of the problem in 1793 he quickly devised a machine known as the cotton gin, which provided an effective solution. He formed a partnership with Miller to manufacture the gin and in 1794 obtained a patent. This invention made possible the extraordinary growth of the cotton industry in the United States, but the patent was widely infringed and it was not until 1807, after amendment of the patent laws, that Whitney was able to obtain a favourable decision in the courts and some financial return.
    In 1798 Whitney was in financial difficulties following the failure of the initial legal action against infringement of the cotton gin patent, but in that year he obtained a government contract to supply 10,000 muskets within two years with generous advance payments. He built a factory at New Haven, Connecticut, and proposed to use a new method of manufacture, perhaps the first application of the system of interchangeable parts. He failed to supply the firearms in the specified time, and in fact the first 500 guns were not delivered until 1801 and the full contract was not completed until 1809.
    In 1812 Whitney made application for a renewal of his cotton gin patent, but this was refused. In the same year, however, he obtained a second contract from the Government for 15,000 firearms and a similar one from New York State which ensured the success of his business.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Mirsky and A.Nevins, 1952, The World of Eli Whitney, New York (a good biography). P.J.Federico, 1960, "Records of Eli Whitney's cotton gin patent", Technology and Culture 1: 168–76 (for details of the cotton gin patent).
    R.S.Woodbury, 1960, The legend of Eli Whitney and interchangeable parts', Technology and Culture 1:235–53 (challenges the traditional view of Eli Whitney as the sole originator of the "American" system of manufacture).
    See also Technology and Culture 14(1973):592–8; 18(1977):146–8; 19(1978):609–11.
    RTS

    Biographical history of technology > Whitney, Eli

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